Copyright (0000) Cork Family

Kevin Cork.



During the 1990's KEVIN CORK undertook extensive research into cinema's in Australia.

Tragically, he died before completing his work, but most of the chapters of his Ph.D Thesis, were completed.

His wife and children have kindly given permission for his work to be reproduced.

Most Australian's would be unaware of the degree to which Greeks, and particularly Kytherian Greeks dominated cinema ownership in Australia - especially in New South Wales.

This piece is an explanation of the methodology underpinning Chapter 2 of the thesis. Personal interaction with many Kytherian families is revealed.

The importance of the Hellenic and Kytherian contribution to Australian cinema ownership and history is clearly demonstrated in this methodological outline, as in all other chapters of the thesis.

It is difficult to know how to pass on to Kytherians the results of Kevin Cork's important research's.

In the end, I felt that the results should be passed on in the most extensive way - i.e. in full re-publication of Chapter's.

Eventually all Chapters will appear on the kythera-family web-site.

Other entries can be sourced by searching under "Cork" on the internal search engine.

See also, Kevin Cork, under People, subsection, High Achievers.

Entries for other members of the Cork family, Merle, Julie, and Stuart, have also been posted to kythera-family.



CHAPTER 2 - METHODOLOGY

"When an old person dies, a library burns to the ground."


In mid-1995, the writer was privileged to interview Emmanuel (Hector) Conomos, aged 94, who was involved with cinema at Walgett from 1927 to 1970. The interview had been arranged to further the writer's knowledge of cinema exhibition, a hobby of many years. Emmanuel Conomos was born on Kythera in 1901, came to Sydney in 1914, and moved to Walgett in 1919. From 1927 until 1970 (with the exception of two years in the late 1930s), he was involved with cinema exhibition in Walgett. His reminiscences and those of his wife, Elly (who arrived in Walgett in 1938), together with their son, George, set the writer on a quest to find similar Greeks. During the course of the interview several other Greek-Australian exhibitors were mentioned. Through the assistance of George Conomos, a number of Greek-Australians were found. It was then a matter of one person leasing to another.

One result of the interview was that the writer perused a copy of The Film Weekly Motion Picture Directory 1948/49 and started to compile a list of Greek exhibitors. By searching the same directory from 1937/38 to 1962/63 (the time when most country areas of New South Wales received television transmission for the first time), the list grew. What has been gathered and presented in this thesis owes much to the initial contact with Mr Conomos and his family.

Having ascertained those Greeks who were exhibiting films from the late 1930s to the early 1960s, the writer then sought those who existed prior to the commencement of The Film Weekly directory in 1936/37. While viewing newspapers to find more information about the Conomos' cinemas in Walgett, it was discovered that three other Greeks had operated cinemas at various times. It was thought that if this were the case in Walgett, similar situations may have occurred in other places. This was found to be true as more people were interviewed and newspapers and film trade magazines were consulted.

Below is a list of known New South Wales' Greek-Australians who were cinema exhibitors prior to the introduction of television in rural areas of the state (ie c1962/63). It is interesting to observe that, with few exceptions, their cinemas were in rural areas. Years of operation have not been listed below but are to be found in a later chapter. The list is as accurate as time and sources have allowed and is certainly indicative of the importance of Greek-Australians to cinema exhibition in this state. Included in the list are locations covered and the names of the cinemas in their charge. Some were freeholds, others were leaseholds and still others were on weekly rentals. The list contains many fine cinema buildings.

Andronicus, J and N J - East Moree Danceland Theatre and Open Air
Aroney, E, Feros, P and Psaltis, G - Bingara Roxy
Bylos, C - Wyalong West Rio and Open Air, Tivoli, Reo Gardens
Calligeros, P - Temora Star and Open Air, Crown, Strand
Comino Bros (Comino, A and Megalokonomos, A) - Wee Waa Star (1st), Star (2nd)
Comino, T - Bellingen Memorial
Conomos, T & V - Carinda Megalo Theatre
Conomos Bros (E, D and L) - Walgett School of Arts and Luxury Theatre
Conson, G - Leeton Globe and Open Air, Roxy, Roxy Garden Theatre; Yenda Regent; Griffith Lyceum, Rio (2nd)
Coroneo, A - Armidale Arcadia, Capitol; Glen Innes Grand and Roxy; Scone Civic; Rose Bay North Kings
Coroneo, S - Cessnock Strand (1st), Strand (2nd); Tamworth Strand
Coroneo, T - Scone Civic
Crones, A - Walgett American Electric Pictures (aka Walgett Picture Palace)
Fatseas, E - Condobolin Central/Renown, Aussie Open Air
Fatzeus, E - Maitland West Rink Pictures & Lyceum Hall
Hatsatouris, E and Sons / Bros - Port Macquarie Empire, Ritz, Civic; Walcha Civic; Laurieton School of Arts and Plaza; Kempsey West Roxy; Taree Civic, Savoy
Hlentzos, Peter - Cooma Capitol and Victor
James, Chris - Cobar Regent and Open Air, Empire and Open Air; Nyngan Palais and Open Air
Johnson, J - Gundagai Theatre
Kalligeris, C and P - Boggabri Royal, Lyric Open Air
Katsoulis, J - Yenda Regent
Koovousis, A and B - Bingara Regent and Open Air, Roxy
Kouvelis, A, J, P - Young Imperial Open Air, Lyceum Hall, Strand; Cowra Lyric, Palace, Centennial Hall; Temora Star and Open Air, Crown; Harden Lyceum; Armidale Arcadia, Capitol; Tamworth Capitol, Regent; Wagga Wagga Capitol, Capitol Gardens, Plaza, Strand, Wonderland Theatre; Moree Capitol, Capitol Garden, East Moree Theatre and Open Air, Inverell Capitol
Laurantus, G - Cootamundra Arcadia; Junee Lyceum, Atheneum; Tumut Montreal; Liverpool Regal
Laurantus, N - Narrandera Globe (1st), Globe (2nd)/Plaza, Open Air, Criterion Hall; Lockhart School of Arts Pictures, Open Air, Rio; Gundagai Theatre; Junee Lyceum, Atheneum; Corowa Rex; Hillston Roxy; Tumut Montreal.
Limbers, P - Cowra Lyric, Globe, Palace, Theatre Cowra
Logus, H - Hay Federal Hall
Louran, P - Goodooga De-Luxe
Lucas, P - Walcha Civic, Theatre
Margetis, B - Fairfield Butterfly, Crescent
Mottee Bros (E, D, G P) - Kempsey Rendezvous/Macleay Talkies, Victoria; Kempsey West Adelphi
Nicholas Bros (S and G) - Merriwa Astros
Notaras, J & A - Grafton Fitzroy, Saraton; Woolgoolga Seaview
Paspalas, A - Walgett Olympia Pictures
Peters (Petracos), P - Walgett Victoria Theatre
Peters (Pizimolas), A - Mullumbimby Empire
Poulos, A - Warialda School of Arts
Rosso, G - Mount Victoria Pictures; Carinda Megalo Theatre
Roufogalis, A and A - Barellan Royal
Simos, J - Cootamundra Arcadia, Roxy
Sotiros, A - Lake Cargelligo Star and Civic
Sourry, C - Armidale Arcadia, Capitol; Glen Innes Grand, Roxy; Tenterfield Lyric; Rose Bay North Kings
Spellson, G - Condobolin Central Theatre; Lake Cargelligo Star
Spellson, L - Bogan Gate Pictures Hall; Lake Cargelligo Star; Tullibigeal Hall and Public Hall; Ungarie
Spellson, N - Bogan Gate Pictures (at Tolhurst Hall)
Stathis, P - Tumut Montreal
Tzannes, J - Boorowa Empire
[Plus an unconfirmed report that an unknown Greek ran films in Gleeson's Hall, Wauchope for a short time around the years of World War I.]

In the very early stages of compiling the list, it was thought that the research might encompass the whole of Australia. By the time that the above list had been completed, it was felt that New South Wales alone could provide ample opportunities to discover the importance of Greek migrants to cinema exhibition prior to the early 1960s.

Research was undertaken concurrently on two fronts. Firstly, interviews with as many people as possible who were exhibitors, or family members of exhibitors. This also meant consulting a number of books to ascertain why so many people migrated from Greece in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Secondly, use was made of available primary sources (eg archive material) to construct histories of the people themselves and their cinemas, thereby balancing oral histories with facts.

A contemporary qualitative researcher, Lindlof, states that
...one interviews people to understand their perspectives on a scene, to retrieve experiences from the past, to gain expert insight or information, to obtain descriptions of events or scenes that are normally unavailable for observation, to foster trust, to understand a sensitive or intimate relationship, or to analyze certain kinds of discourse.
Because archival material can only provide part of a picture, the above thoughts were kept in mind when the oral histories commenced.

Besides Emmanuel Conomos, three others who .....recall..the 1920s/1930s and were closely linked with cinema exhibition were found: George Hatsatouris (aged 89); Anastasia Sotiros (aged 90); Nicholas Andronicos (84). Several who had entered cinema exhibition in the 1940s and 1950s were also located. Where original exhibitors had passed away, family members, friends or relations were interviewed. Some interviewing was done by telephone where distance precluded meeting. Others were done by questionnaires through the post and follow-up letters. Many were done as face-to-face interviews, the transcriptions or sets of notes returned for perusal and alterations, then amendments made. These documents, especially those with Emmanuel Conomos, George Hatsatouris (who were involved with cinema exhibition from the 1920s) and Anastasia Sotiros (who was in cinema exhibition with her husband from 1933 to 1964), provide exciting and vibrant first-hand accounts of Greek migrants who came to Australia with no English language and no money. Anastasia Sotiros' interview is a poignant story of a young woman who arrived in Australia in 1929, was married three days later, had no English language and was forced to rely for some years on the generosity of relations before moving to Lake Cargelligo in 1933 where her husband ran a semi-open air 'tin shed' cinema which had been leased in her name. In their own way, each tale was a 'success' story.

"When an old person dies, a library burns to the ground." Besides the contribution made to the research by the early exhibitors, it was gratifying to speak with those who entered the exhibition field in the 1940s and 1950s (for example, John Tzannes, Arthur and Bill Koovousis). Family members, those who were old enough to remember the 1930s, 40s and 50s, provided useful material but this was often tinged with a regretted response such as "Dad never talked much about why he did so-and-so." On the whole, family members and friends were willing to share their knowledge. They were proud that, as Greeks, their parents, grandparents or friends had made a distinct contribution to our Australian history and way-of-life. Proud to think that, having arrived with nothing, they had proved that they could make something of themselves in this country. The writer was impressed by the pride that these people have in their Greek and Australian heritages. Those old enough to remember the 1930s through to the 1950s, have been developing, for the most, an interest in their own family histories and were eager to share information about their fathers and the cinemas that they once operated. There were times when the writer was able to assist with information that clarified already known facts. Towards the end of the research, the writer surveyed a small number of people with a "Greek connection" for the purpose of ascertaining what they perceived are Greek landmarks in this state. The results were expected.

A number of primary sources were used in order to substantiate and illuminate the oral histories. Documents at the Australian Archives (such as Alien Registration Forms from World War I, and naturalisation records), the NSW State Archives (including Chief Secretary's Department and Board of Fire Commissioners' files on cinemas), the State Library of NSW (for newspapers and magazines), the Mitchell Library (photographic collections, magazines and books), the Land Titles Office of NSW, and the Australian Bureau of Statistics aided the research. Archive material is not limitless. In some cases, newspapers have not survived. A similar tale can be told of company and personal records. In her 1975 thesis, Diane Collins noted, as she searched for material on cinema-going, that archives of film distributors and exhibitors are "either unavailable or destroyed". More often than not, "destroyed" is usually the case. Once a cinema closed and/or the exhibitor passed away, there was no need to keep records. Even when a cinema was part of a chain (eg Hoyts), as the buildings were disposed of, records were dealt with in a similar fashion.

The Australian Archives holds Alien Registration Forms that were instigated in 1916 and maintained until the early 1920s. The Greek forms not only give physical and personal details, but include place of birth, date when entered Australia, then-current address and occupation. When an address changed, the person was obliged to report to the nearest police station and a form was completed. These alteration forms provided the writer with details of where each man went for a number of years prior, in most cases, to involvement in cinema exhibition. Naturalisation records (those available for perusal) provided some personal details which either corroborated existing information or filled gaps. Public access to naturalisation records has a 60-year restriction on it. After 1937, only Archive Staff can view records and the extraction of material was fraught with difficulties. Archive Staff were prepared to assist but had to work when their time permitted. Six weeks was taken to check through a supplied list. Although information (such as date of birth) was supplied at the outset, staff were unable to cross-check or make deductions based on knowledge acquired by the writer who was not present when the searches were made. To complicate matters, in some cases, names had been changed and some spellings were different to those expected.

Of the primary sources available at the NSW State Archives, the Chief Secretary's Department files relating to Theatres and Public Halls proved to be invaluable. While the contents of files differs from building to building, in general they contain inspection reports, police reports, Fire Brigade reports, correspondence between exhibitors and the Chief Secretary, architects' reports, government gazettal notices, occasional newspaper clippings and other miscellaneous material. The Board of Fire Commissioners Theatres and Public Halls' files (NSW State Archives) contain similar items but not to the extent of the Chief Secretary, who was responsible for the licensing of all theatres and public halls from 1909. The files used for this thesis have not been used before by researchers. Also at the NSW State Archives are gaol and medical records and registers of firms and company records which assisted.

In the State Library of NSW and Mitchell Library are holdings of newspapers. Where they have survived, these provided a variety of information including dates, articles about openings, closings, deaths (obituaries), advertisements, and the occasional sketch (eg proposed changes in 1935 for the Arcadia Theatre at Cootamundra) or photograph (eg James Simos' car after it had been dragged from Middle Harbour in 1938 following the accident in which he drowned). In some instances, newspapers no longer exist (eg for Lake Cargelligo in the 1930s) or holdings are incomplete (eg Junee in the late 1920s). Occasionally, libraries misplace items. When any of these situations were encountered, it became necessary to seek other primary print material (eg film trade journals) but the level of success varied. The importance of newspapers in historical research cannot be under-estimated.

Also held at the State Library of NSW and the Mitchell Library are a variety of film trade journals (such as Film Weekly, Film Weekly Motion Picture Directory - annual from 1936/37 to 1971, Everyones, Picture Show, Exhibitor, Australasian Exhibitor). These provide some details about exhibitors and cinemas through the years. Much of the information about openings and closings was provided to the journals by the exhibitors themselves and cannot be said to be a complete picture of events as it was not compulsory to forward such information. On occasions a photograph appears (eg Calligeros' Strand at Temora). Occasionally, incorrect captions have been given to photographs (eg the so-called Palace at Cootamundra, which was Limbers' Palace at Cowra).

The Mitchell Library is the repository of many photographs. Two specific collections, At Work and At Play and the NSW Government Printer, contain photographs relating to many towns and the occasional cinema of a former Greek exhibitor. Another collection of photographs exists at the Denis Wolanski Library, Sydney Opera House and contains views of Hoyts' cinemas in the late 1940s/early 1950s. Among these are some of the cinemas operated by J Kouvelis (eg Tamworth, Wagga Wagga). What makes some of the views valuable, from the point-of-view of this thesis, is that they were taken in Kouvelis/pre-Hoyts' days. Besides the named collections, photographs were provided to the writer by exhibitors, family members or others. Since these have come from private collections, it is unlikely that they will ever be seen by anyone outside the families concerned. The writer considers himself fortunate to have been permitted access to them. As the thesis progresses, the reader will see numerous photographs which are presented to add a visual component to this work.

Certificates of Title and other documents at the NSW Land Titles Office provided information about sites, land transference, leases and mortgages. In some instances, this primary source proved expensive both in money and time when seeking information for more recent years. Most councils were pleased to assist with deposited plan or volume and folio numbers. Occasionally, an employee refrained from assisting, or inadvertently supplied incorrect information. Local councils and their planning departments who were contacted for heritage details of extant cinemas built for Greek-Australians willingly provided details.

Secondary sources on the cinemas and their exhibitors are very limited. While there are some local history books written about a number of the towns covered in this thesis, for the most they tend to ignore cinemas and their exhibitors. On rare occasions, the material presented is flawed and may be due to writers' inability to access archives in Sydney or their reliance on secondary sources. While secondary resources have been read, they have been used only where primary sources are unavailable (eg in the event that newspapers no longer exist) and has been duly noted.

A number of local historical societies were contacted during the course of the research and were asked about their local cinemas and the Greeks who ran them. Responses varied from nothing to a little. On rare occasions, a society was able to provide some photographs and material, often for a fee (in some cases quite high). A few seemed parochial and gave the impression that anyone from outside their areas was "poaching". A few seemed unconcerned about their former cinemas and indicated that they would "have to think about it", especially when asked about photographs. Some letters were ignored or, presumably, lost in transit. When contacted about cafes and cinemas, The National Trust was quick to quote its fees and provide a membership application form.

When it was considered that sufficient material had been collected, a composite listing of exhibitors was created. This set out name (Greek and English), date and place of birth, date and place of death, date of arrival in Australia, the years in which the person was involved with cinema exhibition and the places and cinemas themselves. This list continued to increase with information as interviews and research continued. From the list it was possible to extract material and place it in categories. A list was made that showed place of origin and number of people from each place. This showed that, while the majority of exhibitors were from Kythera, another 11 places featured in the list. The years of birth were extracted and a list compiled. This gave an overall picture and could be used in relation to the next list which was the years of arrival in Australia. By comparing the two, it was possible to ascertain how old each Greek was when he arrived in Australia.

Using the interviews with people it was possible to construct a list that showed the level of English language with which each man arrived. This substantiated what other writers had said about the lack of English amongst the Greek migrants. Returning to the composite list, the years in which the exhibitor commenced and finished his cinema operations was extracted and formed into two separate lists. From these lists, it was easy to ascertain the duration of these men's involvement in cinema exhibition, showing that the subject group commenced in 1915 and the last to commence as in 1957. When the ended their cinema connection ranged from 1916 to 1984. An alphabetical list of all the cinema venues operated was compiled and tallied 118. From this was extracted a list of cinemas actually built by or for these men. While the various 'styles' of architecture used varies greatly, some of the buildings were fine examples of their kind. Sadly, far too few are extant and have little protection from further development. It is from this list that a number of buildings have been nominated by the writer for further study with a view to heritage listing not only for their architectural merit but for their close association to Greek migrants. As a matter of interest for future researchers, a list of known architects who designed the cinemas for these men was compiled and shows at a glance that many noted cinema architects were used.

From the interviews and other sources, a list of the men's involvement in their local communities was made. Six sub-categories were established: Lodges and service clubs; Sport; Balls/dances in their theatres; School involvement such as concerts, speech days and awards; War service, effort and recognition; Religious bi-partisanship; Other. When compiled, this listing presented an interesting overview of how these men sought acceptance in their communities. As a corollary to this list, using interviews and other sources, a list was made to show the Greek exhibitors' commercial involvement within the towns. For some this was limited while for others the towns benefited greatly. It would not be appropriate to exclude the input into the business lives of these men by their wives and families. A separate list was created to show this. From the interviews, it was possible to work out how the majority of the men saw themselves - as Greeks or Greek-Australians. This was an important part of their lives since they came from a Greek background and, with very few exception, strove to become as Australian as possible and to be accepted by the predominantly Anglo-Saxon population.

Two more lists were constructed from the composite list: number of years involved with cinema operation; year of death (if applicable). The former revealed a wide range, from one to 49 years. For the 66 exhibitors, their involvement in cinema exhibition totalled 1127 years (or an average or 16.8 years). When one considers the millions of people who were entertained in their cinemas, then it is appropriate that the contribution to our social history be acknowledged.

The thesis is not a series of short biographies. It contains a number of chapters, each of which looks at particular theme or issue. Chapter 3 presents a short history of each man to the time he became involved with cinema exhibition. Chapter 4 looks at the men's attempts to assimilate, their involvement in their towns and the role of their wives and families. Chapter 5 shows that, for some of these men, their cinema years were not always easy. Chapter 6 examines how they were discriminated against and how, because of the norms of the day, they were forced themselves to discriminate. Chapters 7 and 8 record the "Parthenons Down Under" - the 34 cinemas constructed by or on behalf of these men. Quite a number of them were far better than what might have been expected for the towns in which they were built. Some would have been hailed as fine city or suburban cinemas if they had been constructed in Sydney. Chapter 9 looks briefly at the years of cinema operation of each of the men. Chapter 10 notes the post-cinema years of each. Chapter 11 briefly discusses what are considered to be Greek landmarks and, for posterity's sake, lists a number of cinema buildings which should be examined closely for heritage purposes. Chapter 12 concludes the work.

What has been assembled in this thesis has not been done before. The taking of a particular ethnic group and detailing its contribution to the exhibition of moving pictures and the towns in which those people worked is an important step in acknowledging the role of non-Anglo-Saxon migrants in the development of this state from early this century to the early 1960s. The identification of a number of cinema buildings as deserving recognition not only for their social, cultural, architectural and technological merit but, just as importantly, for their relationship to Greek migrants is important. The Greek contribution to this state should be acknowledged more broadly than it has been so far. Official recognition of these buildings as Hellenic landmarks would force them to be maintained as reminders of those Greek men who migrated here many years ago and built their "Parthenons Down Under".